Evidence That Beef Cows Need Better Treatment

• Introduction
• Macrominerals
• Microminerals Vitamins
• Selecting a Mineral Supplement
• Factors Affecting Mineral Intake
• Bioavailability
• Identifying a Mineral Deficiency
• Copper Deficiency
• Summary
• Literature Cited

Introduction

Beef cattle require a number of minerals for optimal growth and reproduction. Selecting the right mineral supplement is important for maintaining salubrious animals, and optimal growth and reproduction. Since high-quality forages and/or grains can replenish a big portion of the required minerals, producers should select supplements that will meet fauna requirements and avoid excesses that reduce profits and lead to unnecessary mineral excretion. Minerals not provided by feed can be hands and inexpensively supplied with a elementary mineral supplement. A expert mineral program for brood cows should cost near $10 to $20 per yr. This message provides information on basic mineral nutrition for most forage and feeding programs in Georgia.

Minerals essential to cattle nutrition are classified as either macrominerals or microminerals, depending on whether they are found at levels greater than or less than 100 parts per 1000000 (ppm) in the beast's body.

Macrominerals

The macrominerals beef cattle require include calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, chlorine and sulfur. Macromineral requirements and maximum tolerable levels for beef cattle are shown in Tabular array 1.

Calcium and Phosphorus

Calcium and phosphorus are the major mineral components of the skeleton. Ninety-nine per centum of total body calcium and 80 percent of total body phosphorus are stored in the bones. The skeletal stores of calcium and phosphorus are used to come across short-term dietary inadequacies. Long-term deficiencies of either can cause bones to weaken and fifty-fifty break.

Calcium and phosphorus also play important roles in other bodily functions. A decrease in either or both can crusade a decrease in weight gain and/or a decrease in efficiency of gain. During lactation, low amounts of either will reduce milk product. A superior milking cow requires three times more than calcium than a not-lactating cow. A phosphorus deficiency can delay puberty in heifers and can delay mature beef cows from returning to heat following parturition. Cattle also need correct amounts of calcium for the nervous and muscular systems to role properly.

Proper utilization of calcium and phosphorus is afflicted not only by the amount of each mineral fed, merely also past their ratio. The optimum Ca:P ratio is nearly 1.5:i, with a range of 1:ane to 4:1 existence satisfactory. In some high-concentrate rations, ratios higher than ii:i have been successful.

Most grasses are adequate in calcium. Legumes such as alfalfa, peanut, clover and soybean hay are good sources of calcium, only corn silage and sorghum silage are poor sources of calcium. In full general, nearly concentrates are relatively poor calcium sources. One exception is citrus pulp, which is relatively high in calcium concentration (1.9 percentage). Corn, corn by-production feeds and sorghum grain are particularly low in calcium content, and cattle fed grain or corn silage-based diets require calcium supplementation.

Near forages are depression in phosphorus, specially late in the growing season. Cattle are more likely to be phosphorus-deficient during the winter, when they oftentimes subsist on dry forages. Concentrates contain moderate to high concentrations of phosphorus. Protein supplements such equally cottonseed meal and soybean meal comprise moderate concentrations, whereas many by-product feeds such as distillers grains, corn gluten feed and wheat middlings, have loftier phosphorus concentrations.

Sodium and Chlorine

Sodium and chlorine (salt) provide for the proper office of the nervous and muscular systems. They aid regulate torso pH and the amount of water retained in the body. A deficiency of these elements causes loss of appetite and inefficient weight gains or body weight loss. Sodium is ordinarily scarce in diets, simply chlorine levels are unremarkably adequate. Both minerals are present in soft tissues and fluids and there is very little storage of these elements, so a constant, daily source of sodium and chlorine must be provided. Cattle will voluntarily consume more than salt when forage is young and succulent than when it matures. Silage-fed cattle volition swallow more table salt than those fed hay, and consumption is higher in cattle fed loftier-roughage diets than in those on high-concentrate diets. Equally a rule of thumb, cattle consume 0.005 to 0.010 percent of their body weight equally salt daily. For instance, a mature cow weighing i,200 pounds would consume 0.06 to 0.12 pounds (ane,200 ten 0.00005 = 0.half-dozen), or 1.0 to 1.9 ounces of salt daily.

Magnesium

Magnesium is essential for proper enzyme and nervous organisation role and for efficient carbohydrate metabolism. A magnesium deficiency is uncommon except for cows grazing lush-growth fescue or small-scale grain pastures during the late winter and early spring, which may crusade grass tetany, a serious and sometimes fatal metabolic disorder. A loftier charge per unit of nitrogen and potassium fertilization contributes to grass tetany. Excess potassium inhibits magnesium assimilation in both forage and animals. Grass tetany usually occurs following an extended period of cold weather combined with high levels of nitrogen and potassium fertilization. Mature lactating cows are particularly susceptible to grass tetany.

Grass tetany can usually exist prevented by feeding cattle a mineral mixture containing magnesium oxide. A mineral mixture containing ten to 14 per centum magnesium consumed at four ounces per day should provide adequate magnesium. Adequate salt intake is also important for preventing grass tetany. Avoid using difficult blocks to supplement salt when cattle are at risk for grass tetany; supply table salt in a loose course to allow for adequate salt consumption. When grass tetany is non a risk, blocks can be used to supplement minerals, provided trace minerals are elevated to account for lower intake of block versus loose common salt minerals. Animals with grass tetany respond nigh immediately to an intravenous infusion of calcium-magnesium gluconate.

Potassium

Potassium functions in acid-base balance, osmotic pressure and the amount of water retained in the body. Grasses, particularly early on lush leap growth, contains adequate amounts of potassium for grazing cattle and supplementation is rarely needed. Nevertheless, potassium may occasionally exist low in stockpiled forages or hay that was rained on prior to baling because potassium is soluble and will leach from the forage.

Sulfur

Sulfur is a role of the essential amino acids methionine and cystine, which make up protein. A sulfur deficiency in beef cattle diets is non likely to occur nether normal feeding atmospheric condition. Sulfur is more likely to be in excess, which can interfere with the metabolism of copper, resulting in a copper deficiency. Also, excess sulfur can reduce feed intake and cause a brain lesion condition known equally polioencephalomalacia (PEM). Certain by-products such as distillers grains and corn gluten feed contain higher concentrations of sulfur, which should exist taken into account in ration balancing. Sulfur is often added indirectly to the mineral mix through sulfate forms of the microminerals.

Table 1. Macro mineral requirements and maximum tolerable levels for beef cattle.
Mineral	Lactating Cows	Dry Cows	Growing Calves	Maximum Tolerable Level
Calcium, %	0.31	0.eighteen	0.58	—
Magnesium, %	0.10	0.12	0.20	0.twoscore
Phosphorus, %	0.21	0.16	0.26	—
Potassium, %	0.60	0.60	0.lxx	iii.0
Sodium, %	0.07	0.07	0.10	—
Sulfur, %	0.15	0.15	0.xv	0.40
NRC, 1996. Adapted from NRC. Food Requirements of Beef Cattle, Sixth Edition.

Microminerals

Beef cattle require x microminerals. Seven of the 10 microminerals take established requirements, including iron, manganese, copper, zinc, selenium, cobalt and iodine. The microminerals chromium, molybdenum and nickel practice non have an established requirement and are not normally added to mineral mixes fed to beef cattle. Merely 3 of the microminerals (copper, zinc and selenium) are probable to be deficient in grazing beef cattle diets. Micromineral requirements and maximum tolerable levels for beef cattle are shown in Table ii.

Cobalt

Cobalt functions every bit a component of vitamin B-12, which is synthesized in the rumen by bacteria. The principal deficiency symptom is loss of appetite and poor growth. Virtually forages in the Southeast accept adequate levels of cobalt; however, it is usually added in the mineral mix at approximately 10 ppm to ensure no deficiencies. High-grain diets require more cobalt than forage-based diets, and cobalt should always be included in the mineral mix when feeding grain-based diets.

Copper

Copper is the almost common micromineral deficiency in grazing cattle. Copper is an of import component of many enzyme systems essential for normal growth and development. Deficiency signs include reduced fertility, depressed immunity and reduced pigmentation of pilus (black hair changes to cherry). Dietary deficiencies tin occur, only most deficiencies are caused by the consumption of antagonists, which reduces copper absorption. Copper should be supplemented as copper sulfate, tribasic copper chloride or an organic complexed grade because copper oxide is very poorly captivated.

Iodine

Iodine is an essential mineral for office of the thyroid hormones that regulate energy metabolism. The offset sign of iodine deficiency is goiter in newborn calves. Iodine is rarely scarce in cow herds in the Southeast. Iodine is ordinarily supplemented every bit ethylenediamine dihydroidide (EDDI). The maximum legal supplementation of EDDI is l mg per head per day. In some instances, EDDI has been included in diets to prevent foot rot; however, the amount of EDDI required to prevent foot rot is much higher than requirements and nearly likely will not prevent pes rot when included at the legal maximum.

Atomic number 26

Fe is primarily required for the germination of hemoglobin. Deficiency symptoms include anemia, depressed immunity and decreased weight gains. Iron deficiency is rarely observed in grazing cattle. Iron oxide is oft included in mineral mixtures, but is unavailable to the animal and serves only as a coloring agent to requite the mineral a dark red color. Iron sulfate is available to the animal and should be used if iron supplementation is needed.

Manganese

Manganese is required for normal reproduction, and fetal and udder development. Manganese deficiency is rare and unlikely to exist a problem in grazing cattle in Georgia. Manganese oxide is the most mutual grade of manganese used in mineral mixes. Corn-based diets are low in manganese and supplementation is necessary when feeding these diets.

Selenium

Selenium can be deficient in some areas of Georgia. Selenium deficiency causes white musculus disease (similar to muscular dystrophy) in newborn calves. Selenium deficiency can also cause calves to be weak at birth and increase their susceptibility to calfhood diseases like scours. Increased rates of retained placentas and poor reproductive performance are often observed in cows with selenium deficiencies.

Selenium is mostly added to mineral mixtures in the course of sodium selenite. Selenium is very toxic and should be used in a premixed form only. The FDA allows selenium to be used at a level not to exceed 0.3 ppm of the dry matter in the full diet of beefiness cattle. In areas where deficiencies occur, use the maximum legal level. The FDA allows upward to 120 ppm to be included in a salt-mineral mixture for gratuitous-selection feeding. Selenium deficiency should not exist a problem if adequate amounts of selenium are consumed in the mineral supplement. Nonetheless, the concentration of selenium in the supplement and the labeled intake must not outcome in a total intake of more three mg per solar day. Thus, a mineral labeled for intake of 4 ounces per head per day cannot exceed 26 ppm selenium.

Zinc

Zinc is marginal to deficient in most Georgia forages. Zinc is a component of many enzymes and is of import for immunity, male person reproduction, and peel and hoof health. Cattle take a express ability to store zinc and supplementation is e'er necessary. Zinc assimilation is closely tied to copper absorption, and the zinc to copper ratio should exist kept at approximately 3:ane. In add-on, high levels of iron tin decrease zinc absorption. Assimilation of zinc decreases one time the ratio of iron to zinc exceeds 2:1. Some feedlots feed supplemental zinc methionine to improve hoof health and thus improve daily gains and feed efficiency.

Table two. Micromineral Requirements and Maximum Tolerable Levels for Beef Cattle.
Mineral	Lactating Cows	Dry Cows	Growing Calves	Maximum Tolerable Level
Chromium	—	—	—	l.0
Cobalt, ppm	0.1	0.1	0.1	ten.0
Copper, ppm	10.0	10.0	10.0	100.0
Iodine, ppm	0.50	0.50	0.l	50.0
Iron, ppm	50.0	fifty.0	50.0	1000.0
Manganese, ppm	twenty.0	xl.0	40.0	1000.0
Molybdenum, ppm	—	—	—	five.0
Nickel	—	—	—	50.0
Selenium, ppm	0.ten	0.ten	0.ten	ii.0
Zinc, ppm	30.0	30.0	xxx.0	500.0
NRC, 1996. Adapted from NRC. Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle, Sixth Edition.

Vitamins

Vitamins are closely linked to mineral metabolism and absorption. Vitamin A helps pare and mucous membranes stay healthy. Vitamin A requirements usually are met by grazing fresh, green, growing grass. Oxidation deteriorates vitamin A during storage, so diets based on stored feeds should be supplemented with vitamin A. Supplement diets with vitamin A any fourth dimension the major portion is stored feeds.

Vitamin A tin be added to a mineral mix in a stabilized form to prevent oxidation. The minimum amount should exist approximately 120,000 International Units (IU) of vitamin A per pound of mineral. Vitamin A can too be added to the grain mixture to provide 15,000 to 30,000 IU per head per twenty-four hour period, depending on individual requirements. An alternative method is to inject 1.5 1000000 IU subcutaneously if a source of dietary citamin A is not available for 60 to ninety days, although unnecessary injections are discouraged in consideration of National Beef Quality Balls guidelines.

Vitamin D aids the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the intestine and their deposition in the bone matrix. Signs of vitamin D deficiency are similar to a calcium or phosphorus deficiency. Nearly cattle exposed to directly sunlight synthesize enough vitamin D, only cattle in a covered confinement feedlot may need supplemental vitamin D.

Vitamin E is usually present in the nutrition in sufficient quantities for all classes of cattle; withal, a selenium deficiency could lead to an apparent deficiency of vitamin E. Vitamin Eastward can be helpful for short-term periods of stress that may occur when calves are co-mingled and transported at weaning.

Other essential vitamins are normally present in adequate quantities in the nutrition or are synthesized past bacteria in the rumen.

Selecting a Mineral Supplement

The average mineral content of several forages, grains and by-production feeds are shown in Table 3. The actual mineral content of feeds, peculiarly forages and by-products, volition vary, and then all feeds should be tested for actual mineral content. Even so, the mineral concentrations can be used as a guide when choosing a mineral supplement to complement a particular feed ingredient. In addition, an example mineral mix for lactating cows is provided in Table iv. The calcium to phosphorus ratio in most mineral mixes should exist 2:1 to 4:1. Phosphorus supplementation may not exist needed if forages have been fertilized with poultry litter or when feeding high-phosphorus feeds such as cottonseed, cottonseed repast, distillers grains or corn gluten feed. Salt is not stored in the animal's torso and should be made bachelor continuously. Salt is the merely mineral that cattle crave, and common salt-deprived cattle will often eat dirt or wood. A mineral mix should incorporate 15 to 22 percent salt. Magnesium should exist at least 14 percent in the mineral mix when grass tetany is a concern. Also, closely examine mineral tags for add-on of unnecessary products such as B-vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, folic acid). These vitamins are normally not needed past grazing cattle because they are produced by the rumen bacteria and increment the toll of the supplement.

The most important points to consider when purchasing minerals are calcium to phosphorus levels, salt level, bioavailability (particularly copper), level of "trace minerals" in the supplement, and additives. Y'all can learn a lot most the mineral yous are feeding by studying the mineral tag for a few minutes. In addition, minerals are often used to deliver products such as ionophores (Rumensin, Bovatec) and antibiotics (chlortetracycline, GainPro). Advisedly read label instructions when using medicated mineral mixes to ensure acceptable intake and to ensure the production is labeled for the intended use.

Grain-based diets

There are many differences between mineral supplements designed for a forage-based versus a grain-based diet. Since grains and well-nigh past-production feeds except citrus lurid contain low concentrates of calcium, supplements should contain approximately 25 pct calcium and be fed at a rate of 4 ounces per day. Supplemental salt should be provided at 1 to ane.9 ounces per day. The primary microminerals of nigh business concern are zinc, copper, cobalt and selenium. Trace mineral table salt is usually added at 0.v percent of the diet to provide most supplemental trace mineral needs. Selenium may need to exist added to maintain a total diet concentration of 0.1 ppm. Additional phosphorus supplementation is rarely required when feeding grain-based diets.

Table iii. Mineral content of commonly used forages and concentrate feeds.
Feedstuff	Calcium %	Phosphorus %	Potassium %	Sulfur %	Copper, ppm	Zinc, ppm
Bahiagrass Pasture	0.46	0.22	ane.45	0.21	8.0	20.0
Bermudagrass Pasture	0.39	0.26	one.3	0.28	nine.0	20.0
Bermudagrass Hay	0.43	0.20	1.61	0.21	nine.0	20.0
Fescue Pasture	0.51	0.27	2.three	0.nineteen	5.viii	18.7
Fescue Hay	0.51	0.37	2.3	0.xviii	6.0	22.0
Corn	0.03	0.31	0.33	0.14	4.eight	xvi.0
Corn Silage	0.25	0.22	1.14	0.12	four.two	17.7
Corn Gluten Feed	0.07	0.95	ane.40	0.47	7.0	73.3
Cottonseed Meal, 41%	0.xx	1.16	i.65	0.42	16.5	74.0
Whole Cottonseed	0.16	0.62	1.22	0.26	seven.9	37.7
Soyhulls	0.53	0.18	1.29	0.xi	17.8	48.0
Soybean Meal, 44%	0.40	0.71	2.22	0.46	22.four	57.0
Molasses	1.00	0.10	4.01	0.47	65.vii	21.0
Citrus Lurid	1.88	0.13	0.77	0.08	half-dozen.two	xv.0
NRC, 1996. Adapted from NRC. Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle, Sixth Edition.

Table iv. Example free-choice mineral specifications for lactating cows.
Mineral	4 Ounce Intake Per Twenty-four hours
Calcium	x to fifteen%
Phosphorus	iv to 8%
Salt	15 to xx%
Magnesium1	1%
Sulfur2	0.5%
Copper	0.12% (1200 ppm)
Zinc	0.iii% (3000 ppm)
Cobalt	0.001% (10 ppm)
Iodine	0.008% (80 ppm)
Selenium	0.0026% (26 ppm)
iMagnesium should exist increased to at to the lowest degree x% when grass tetany is a concern 2Sulfur supplementation is unremarkably not required, however it is ofttimes added to mineral mixes past the employ of sulfate forms of other minerals.

Factors Affecting Mineral Intake

Controlling intake at the desired level is very challenging because mineral intake fluctuates. Monitor mineral intake for several weeks prior to implementing direction practices to alter mineral intake. If mineral intake is as well high or low, move the mineral feeder either closer to or farther away from the water source and loafing areas. When cattle are over-consuming mineral, common salt is often added to reduce the corporeality of minerals cattle eat. Salt level has a significant touch on on mineral intake and is easily inverse to control intake; however, you must account for the additional table salt when determining the right intake. For instance, if a mineral with a recommended feeding rate of 4 ounces per 24-hour interval is mixed in a 50:50 ratio with plain white table salt, the cattle should consume eight ounces per day. This would supply the cattle with the targeted amount of 4 ounces of mineral plus 4 ounces of added table salt. When under-consumption is a problem, attempt calculation dried molasses or change brands to a more palatable mineral. In addition, keep in heed that calves can swallow significant amounts of mineral and this should exist considered before decreasing the feeding level.

If mineral intake is inadequate, endeavour adding a palatable feedstuff to the mix. Feeds such as cottonseed meal, soybean meal, dry molasses and distillers grains can improve mineral intake. Moving the mineral feeder closer to the water source can improve intake. In add-on, changing mineral brands will sometimes provide a mineral that is more than palatable.

Regularly monitor mineral consumption by keeping a record of animal numbers and feeding amounts to combat potential mineral intake problems.

Mineral Feeders

Mineral feeder placement is a very important part of supplying minerals to the cow herd. Be sure an adequate number of feeders are bachelor for the stocking rate of the pasture. A dominion of thumb is to provide one mineral feeding station for every 30 to 50 cows. The best areas to place mineral feeders are near water, in shaded loafing areas and near the all-time grazing areas. Check feeders at least once a calendar week and keep a make clean, fresh supply of minerals present at all times. A good feeder should keep minerals dry, be portable and concord up to corruption and corrosion. Open tubs are non acceptable in the Southeast. Because minerals can be corrosive to metals, feeders made of wood, fiberglass or plastic usually terminal longer. Permanent mineral feeders made of physical also piece of work well, but portability is a problem.

Supplement Form

Feeding minerals gratis-choice in a loose mix form is well-nigh desirable for brood cows. For cattle on complete diets, minerals are most optimally supplied when mixed in a TMR. When supplementing in a block form, trace minerals must be higher than what is contained in a loose mineral mix, as the brute will commonly eat only ane to 2 ounces per twenty-four hours. In improver, some blocks contain merely trace mineralized salt, which will not meet the animal'south requirements for macrominerals such as calcium and phosphorus. Carefully read the characterization on a block mineral supplement to make sure the product contains all needed minerals. Cake minerals are sometimes used when supplementing cattle that have non had access to minerals for a long menses of time. In this situation, cattle will profoundly over-consume minerals in a loose mix form if given free-choice access. Blocks can be used for a short period of time to prevent mineral over-consumption. Do not supply plain white salt and mineral separately since intake of the mineral will likely be likewise depression because cattle volition crave only the common salt.

Commercial poly peptide and energy supplements are sometimes fortified with minerals. Commercial supplements come in the course of dry pelletted feeds, liquid molasses supplements, hard molasses-based blocks, or hard-pressed grain-based blocks. It is not necessary to provide a complimentary-choice mineral supplement along with the commercial poly peptide/energy supplement. Feeding minerals in both the free-choice mineral and the poly peptide/energy supplement should not negatively bear on operation, but it is an expense that could be saved. It may be necessary to only offer plain white common salt blocks when feeding the commercial protein/energy supplements.

Season

Mineral intake is usually higher when lush provender is available and lower during the fall or periods of drought. Mineral content and forage digestibility declines with increasing institute maturity. Mature forages are consumed in lower quantity, farther reducing mineral intake. Speedily growing, lush forages have a higher availability of minerals compared with mature forages. In addition, mineral content is college in forages grown on soils with greater fertility. Spring grass is usually well fertilized and highly digestible, which leads to greater intake of mineral from forages and reduced consumption of supplemental mineral during that time of the year.

Feeding Method

Stocker calves are sometimes fed a consummate grain- or silage-based ration mixed on the farm. Thoroughly mixing minerals in mixed rations is difficult; only a small quantity of mineral is required and it separates easily from the larger particle sizes of grain and forages. It may be wiser to utilise a mineral supplement that has a college feeding charge per unit or feed the mineral costless-option or equally a top dress.

A trial was conducted to compare feeding a mineral supplement past gratis-choice feeding or top-dressing the mineral on the feed each day. The mineral contained an ionophore (Bovatec®). Results of the trial, in which heifers were fed hay, corn, corn silage and minerals either in a free-choice feeder or where supplemental minerals were elevation-dressed (4 ounces per 24-hour interval) on the feed each day, are shown in Tabular array v. Supplementing minerals either gratis-choice or top-dressing resulted in similar daily gains. Heifers fed minerals complimentary-choice consumed virtually 0.5 ounces per head less than the targeted intake of 4 ounces per 24-hour interval merely were within the range required for the ionophore to be effective. If specific amounts of a particular mineral or feed additive are required per solar day, it would be desirable to elevation-dress or mix the mineral into the feed every day rather than allow free-choice consumption. When feeding minerals costless-choice, closely monitor mineral consumption to make sure intake is adequate. This is of particular importance when feeding an additive such as an ionophore or antibiotic.

Table 5. Performance of heifers provided supplemental minerals either free-choice or height dressed onto feed daily.
Item	Free-selection	Top-dressed
Initial wt, lbs	574	579
Final wt, lbs	736	736
Total gain, lbs	162	157
Daily gain, lbs	ane.93	ane.87
Mineral intake, ounces/twenty-four hour period	3.52	four.00

Bioavailability

Consider the bioavailability of the mineral supplements when purchasing minerals. Bioavailability of sulfates and chlorides is generally greater than bioavailability of oxides. I exception is magnesium oxide, which is absorbed well enough to exist used in beef cattle minerals. Withal, avoid mineral supplements that use copper oxide, which is poorly captivated. Iron oxide is also poorly absorbed and is mostly used to add color to the mineral mix. Because of the forages and feedstuffs in Georgia, cattle seldom require iron supplementation, so the addition of iron oxide should not negatively impact cattle performance and may be beneficial since iron can bind other minerals and prevent their assimilation.

Minerals are unremarkably included in supplements in the inorganic course but may also be combined with an amino acrid or poly peptide and fed in the organic form (referred to as complexes, proteinates or chelates). Minerals that are sometimes fed in the organic form include copper, zinc, cobalt and manganese with an amino acid or protein. The relative bioavailability of copper, manganese and zinc from dissimilar sources is college compared to inorganic sources as outlined in Table 6.

Organic minerals cost more than than inorganic minerals; therefore, an increase in operation must be realized to commencement the higher buy price. The response to organic minerals has been variable and they are only recommended in sure situations. Organic minerals take been effective in increasing the reproductive efficiency of young breeding females under nutritional stress, or reducing morbidity and mortality of newly weaned calves that are highly susceptible to bovine respiratory illness. For cows, organic minerals are usually fed from two months prior to calving through breeding. For calves, organic minerals are generally included simply during the preconditioning catamenia. However, zinc methionine may exist fed continually during the feeding period to subtract lameness.

Tabular array 6. Relative bioavailability of microminerals from different sources1
Mineral	Sulfate-grade	Oxide-class	Carbonate	Chloride-form	Organic-grade (complex, chelate)
Copper	100	0	—	105	130
Manganese	100	58	28	—	176
Zinc	100	—	sixty	40	159 to 206
iAvailability relative to that of the sulfate form.Adjusted from Greene, 1995.

Identifying a Mineral Deficiency

A mineral deficiency in cattle is difficult to diagnose and can silently rob profits from the herd. Most deficiencies are related to copper, zinc and selenium, only other mineral deficiencies tin occur.

Mineral deficiencies are classified as either main or secondary deficiencies. Primary mineral deficiencies occur when cattle consume forages that are deficient in a item mineral such as magnesium. Failure to provide a mineral supplement is the virtually mutual crusade of master mineral deficiencies. Primary mineral deficiencies rarely occur in well-managed herds that receive mineral supplements.

A secondary mineral deficiency occurs when cattle consume mineral antagonists, which interfere with the normal absorption or metabolism of another mineral. In the instance of copper deficiency, cattle are consuming enough copper to meet requirements, but some other mineral antagonist such as sulfur binds to the copper and prevents it from being absorbed and used by the animal. Secondary mineral deficiencies are the most common type of mineral deficiency. Take the following steps to ensure that the problem is due to a mineral deficiency.

• Commencement, dominion out other possible causes of poor performance such as disease, plant toxins, or inadequate protein and free energy in the diet. The starting time sign of a trouble in most herds is poor reproductive efficiency. Inadequate torso condition, due to protein or energy deficiency, is the most common cause of reproductive failure.
• Monitor mineral intake to ensure cattle are eating the recommended amounts. A recommended intake is usually indicated on the mineral bag.
• Evaluate the trace mineral levels and sources of each trace mineral. Remember that the bioavailability of sulfates and chlorides is generally greater than that of oxides.
• Breed can likewise bear on the mineral requirements of the cow herd. Simmental and Charolais cattle require more copper than Angus cattle. Levels may need to be increased 25 to fifty per centum for these breeds.
• If a secondary mineral deficiency is suspected, then a laboratory analysis of forages must be conducted. In some instances, h2o should be tested if information technology is suspected that information technology might be high in fe or sulfur.
• Blood samples and liver biopsies may as well be used to assess the mineral status of a cow. Liver samples are a more accurate indicator of mineral status. These tests are expensive and should be pursued just afterwards the above steps have been taken.
• Ask for aid from county agents, specialists, veterinarians and feed dealers. No one person knows all the answers and a team approach to solving a mineral problem is often required.

Copper Deficiency

Copper deficiency is an increasing business organization in Georgia and other Southeastern states. Copper deficiency causes a wide range of problems such equally poor hair glaze, brittle bones, reduced weight gains and a weakened immune system. The University of Tennessee reported a copper deficiency in as many as 99 pct of tall fescue forage samples, and increased deficiency in the fall rather than spring. Results of copper concentrations in forages equally reported by NRC are presented in Table 7, but bodily concentrations vary due to soil type, fertilization and climate. For best results, test forages and feed ingredients.

1 of the most visible signs of copper deficiency is change in hair color. Cattle with black hair volition develop a reddish or gray tint. Cattle with red hair will get more bleached. Another common problem associated with copper deficiency is lowered immunity. The combination of low copper and high sulfur concentrations in pasture grasses tin can result in copper existence deficient even in the most well managed herds.

Sulfur antagonisms are the nearly common cause of copper deficiencies in Georgia forages. Results of the NAHMS forage survey indicated that sulfur concentrations were marginal to loftier antagonistic in 79 percent of samples. Iron and molybdenum showed marginal to highly antagonistic levels in thirteen and 18 percent of samples, respectively. Sulfur is present in all feedstuffs and is incorporated in some mineral supplements. The well-nigh significant sources of sulfur are directly supplementation, sulfur-containing fertilizers, water and energy/poly peptide supplements.

Ammonium sulfate fertilizers are widely available and their use is on the rise. In the past, fertilizers contained modest amounts of sulfur. Still, mod methods of fertilizer production take eliminated whatever sulfur contamination. Therefore, sulfur-containing fertilizers are now beingness used to supply this important nutrient to pastures. In a University of Florida written report, bahiagrass pastures were fertilized with either ammonium sulfate or ammonium nitrate to provide sixty pounds of nitrogen per acre. Ammonium sulfate increased forage yield in one of iii years but increased plant sulfur levels to 0.50 percent. Sulfur becomes a problem when the concentration reaches or exceeds 0.35 percent. Liver copper concentrations in cows grazing pastures fertilized with ammonium sulfate were considered deficient, but were adequate in cows that grazed forages not fertilized with ammonium sulfate. In addition, use of poultry litter as a fertilizer will as well elevate forage sulfur levels.

Simply providing more than copper in the mineral supplement may not meliorate copper status, considering equally long as sulfur is present in excessive amounts in the fodder, copper absorption will be decreased. If sulfur levels are deadline loftier (0.35 percent sulfur), then it can exist helpful to increase copper concentrations upward to 2,500 ppm. In the Florida study, even though the cows were copper deficient, no signs of deficiency or poor performance were noted. Many times, copper deficiencies do not show up until calves become sick later on weaning and shipping. In a separate study, cows deficient in copper were able to rapidly replenish their liver copper concentrations to adequate levels when fed a low-sulfur nutrition.

Certain energy and protein supplements can also contribute significant amounts of dietary sulfur. Feedstuffs that contain sulfur in antagonistic amounts include corn gluten feed, corn gluten meal, distillers grains, molasses, soybean meal and cottonseed meal. Poly peptide supplements are fed in pocket-size amounts, then sulfur concentration is diluted by the remainder of the diet. Molasses-based supplements are unremarkably used in winter feeding programs. The University of Florida has conducted studies to examine the outcome of molasses on copper absorption in grazing heifers. The researchers compared a corn-based supplement to a molasses-based supplement. Accumulation of copper in the liver increased by 46 percent for heifers fed the corn-based supplement, only decreased nine percent for heifers fed the molasses-based supplement. Absorption of other microminerals (zinc, iron, manganese) was not affected by supplement type.

Well-nigh high-sulfur feeds are only consumed during the winter feeding period and should not significantly affect copper status. Cattle are able to utilize copper stored in the liver during the grazing season, which should reduce the problem of depletion during the winter feeding period. Sulfur from pasture and hay is the chief cause of copper deficiency considering they are consumed year-around. The but concern for winter feeding is when cattle have been on pastures that are high in sulfur or are existence fed hay that has sulfur levels antagonistic to mineral absorption. Consider feeding low-sulfur feeds during the pre-workout catamenia, especially if your cattle have had health problems in the by when fed high-sulfur feeds.

Table seven. Classification of micro elements in forage relative to their abilities to run across either dietary requirements or cause an antagonistic problem with copper.
Microminerals	Deficient	Marginally Deficient	Acceptable	MTCane
Aluminum (ppm)	—	—	—	grand
Copper (ppm)	<4	4 to 9.9	e"10	100
Manganese (ppm)	<twenty	20 to 39.9	e"40	1000
Zinc (ppm)	<20	20 to 29.9	eastward"thirty	500
Selenium (ppm)	<100	100 to 199.9	200	2000
Copper:Mo ratio	<4:one	4.0 to iv.5:1	>4.5 to 5:1	—
1Maximum Tolerable Concentration — Source: NAHMS, 1999

Summary

Mineral and vitamin diet is vital to overall herd health and reproductive efficiency. Calcium, phosphorus and salt are nearly likely to be the most limiting macrominerals in cattle diets. Magnesium may be a trouble during late wintertime or early on jump, especially in mature lactating cows. Secondary mineral deficiencies are an increasing business concern because of increasing sulfur concentrations in homegrown feeds. A clear diagnosis of a mineral deficiency should be established earlier making drastic changes in a management or mineral program. Vitamins A, D and Eastward are the but vitamins that may be deficient in beefiness cattle diets. Controlling daily intake is a abiding challenge, but several management strategies can be used to ensure proper daily intake of minerals and vitamins.

Literature Cited

Arthington, J.D., and C.K. Swenson. 2004. Furnishings of trace mineral source and feeding method on the productivity of grazing Braford cows. Prof. Anim. Sci. twenty:155-161.

Arthington, J.D., and F.M. Pate. 2002. Consequence of corn- versus molasses-based supplements on trace mineral assimilation in beef heifers. J. Anim. Sci. 80:2787-2791.

Arthington, J.D., J.Due east. Rechcigl, G.P. Yost, L.R. McDowell, and M.D. Fanning. 2002. Issue of ammonium sulfate fertilization on bahiagrass quality and copper metabolism in grazing beef cattle. J. Anim. Sci. lxxx:2507-2512.

Gadberry, S. 2004. Mineral and vitamin supplementation of beef cows in Arkansas. Univ. of Arkansas Extension. FSA:3035

Gill, W., C. Lane, J. Neel, and A. Fisher. 2004. Mineral nutrition of beef cattle. Univ. of Tennessee Extension. Lead:1749.

Greene, L.W. 1995. The nutritional value of inorganic and organic mineral sources. Update of mineral nutrition of beef cattle. San Antonio, TX. In: Proc. Plains Nutr. Council Symp. Pp 23-32.

Unhurt, C., and Thousand.C. Olson. 2001. Mineral supplements for beefiness cattle. Univ. of Missouri Extension. G2081.

Mortimor, R.G., D.A. Dargatz, and L.R. Corah. 1999. Forage Analysis from cow/calf herds in 23 states. Fort Collins, CO. USDA:APHIS:VS, Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health. #N303.499.

Nutrient requirements of beef cattle. 1996. Washington, D.C. National Research Council.

Ward, J.D., J.Westward.Spears, and Yard.P. Gengelbach. 1995. Differences in copper status and copper metabolism among Angus, Simmental, and Charolais cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 73:571.

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Status and Revision History
Published on Jan 04, 2007
Published on February 04, 2009
In Review on January 05, 2010
Published on Feb 16, 2010
Published with Full Review on Mar 14, 2013
Published with Full Review on Mar 31, 2017

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Source: https://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.html?number=B895&title=Mineral%20Supplements%20for%20Beef%20Cattle